Thomas Anderson, EDAC631
Adult Education in the "Roaring 20s"
January 27, 2023
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What a decade…the 1920s! There were many substantial social changes taking place in the 1920s. Immigration, race, alcohol, evolution, gender politics, and sexual morality all became major cultural battlefields during the 1920s. African Americans were given citizenship in 1866, though American Indians were not granted citizenship until 1924. During this time America came to be a world power, no longer considered just another former British Colony. World War 1 (“The Great War”) was now over, the eighteenth amendment was passed, sparking prohibition. The nineteenth amendment was passed giving women the right to vote. Americans began owning cars and radios; a time of prosperity. Living in this decade was all but carefree. Students generally spent 75 days a year in school, while they now spend an average of 180 days. Education, in general, became more organized to reflect the growing population and their needs. Learning in higher education (adult education) rose dramatically.
Adult education means many things to many different people. In the 1920s there was difficulty in actually coining an accurate term. So what is adult education? In 1926 Frederick Keppel defined adult education as "the process of learning, on the initiative of the individual, seriously and consecutively undertaken as a supplement to some primary occupation." The 1920s saw a shift in what encompassed adult education, narrowing the definition of education itself, while the functions of the school broadened. The term “adult education” was not even used in the United States until 1890, the first part of the twentieth century. The very concept of adult education grew from dissatisfaction with public education and university. It was an attempt at taking education beyond the boundaries of the traditional classroom and restoring learning and more traditional values. Because of this need, the American Association for Adult Education (AAAE) was founded in the 1920s to mitigate problems generally associated with other areas of professionalized education. “The 1920s has usually been considered the marking point for the beginning of the professional or "self-conscious” movement for adult education” (Rose, 1979). This decade served as a bridge between old views and the new progressive movement taking place.
Education in any form encompasses learning and experiences that occur throughout a lifetime. It does not only belong in the classroom as the Progressive Movement makes very clear. The shift from sitting and memorizing facts to students actually learning by doing came to light, and independent thinking with experimentation became the norm. The Progressive Era also saw a rise in teacher education, offering training to those wanting to become primary teachers. The whole point of Progressive education was to actively engage students in their own learning in an effort to build problem solving skills, critical thinking, and deepen their understanding of content. With this movement also came state boards of education, more uniform curricula, and increased state government control over teacher education programs.
The Progressive Movement was concentrated around four main goals: (1) to protect social welfare, (2) to promote moral improvement, (3) to create economic reform, and (4) to foster efficiency. Bringing education under the direction of the state for more uniformity was a first step in accomplishing these goals. Up until reform, education was mainly for the rich or elite. One idea to improve life in America for all citizens is to offer schooling for minorities, lower classes and immigrants. Schools began to spring up all over cities around the country. Progressive education in the 20th century embraced democratic concepts such as participation and engagement of all citizens, in ways that affected social, economic, and political benefits for all. John Dewey believed that “education must prepare a learner for active participation in a democratic, global society”. His philosophy was “that education is life, growth, reconstruction of human experiences, and a social process”. He also believed that a curriculum should be interdisciplinary, meaning there should be connections to other subjects rather than each being taught in isolation. Further, vocational education was encouraged by the General Education Board and John D. Rockefeller, presumably for lower class citizens and immigrant families in an effort to ensure they would maintain employment through their adult lives. The GEB provided major funding for schools across the nation and was very influential in shaping the current school system. Rockefeller claimed that he “did not want a nation of thinkers, but rather a nation of workers”. Born of these thoughts and philosophies was a new direction for education.
Prior to such bold insight, adults did not participate in education due to the embarrassment, time constraints, job commitments, and lost access. As the Twentieth Century came into view, the standard of living and human quality was raised to include developing adult education. Education was considered for keeping up with the newest job skills, developing technologies, and maintenance of job certification. This new take on education served the purpose of not only meeting personal goals, but a way to attain professional goals, the ultimate goal being human fulfillment. Learning never stops from the day we are born. Humans are curious and love to question processes and views. Eduard C. Lindeman acknowledged that learning is a lifelong process and gave reverence to the idea that as social change occurs and new experiences are part of life, this should serve to enrich human life. Lindeman proposed that the human experience is the most important learner resource and “insists that adult education is an inspiring life-changing tool. Adult education should not only help people improve their skills and abilities in work, but also guide people to find happiness outside work”. As more rigorous curricula were designed, more adults began seeking further education as a way to satisfy the human need to improve oneself.
Classes that had been Reading, Math, History and Foreign Language now included the Sciences, Music, Physical Education, Vocational Skills training, and even Bible class. There was seemingly something for everyone. Challenges though now included how to educate immigrant children and their families. While school became more challenging, illiteracy grew to almost 35% due to the flooding of immigrants after the war. The purpose of education, in the first place, is to help immigrants assimilate to America and American ways of life. To help address this need, the Federal Bureau of Education and Naturalization office of the United States published a book on learning how to become a citizen. Many organizations banned together to immerse immigrants in the English Language and History of America, helping to change the whole focus of education. Because education was believed to be the way to a richer, more fulfilling quality of life, it was now worthy of tax dollars. This led to Senator Clayton R. Lusk, enacting “Loyalty Laws” to keep teachers loyal to the government.
“These laws required public school teachers to obtain certificates of loyalty and character from the state commissioner of education. Many teachers were opposed to this process, believing it to be a breach of their civil liberties; in 1923, under the guidance of Governor Alfred E. Smith (1873–1944), the Lusk laws were repealed” (1984). Some states began requiring regular attendance at public schools in 1922, only to be ruled by the Supreme Court to be unconstitutional, as it took away the rights of parents to select schools for their children. The idea of public education was to allow all citizens a free education. Since that time, public education has changed, but not dramatically. Though we do have laws that require school attendance through tenth grade or age 16, the progressive attitude seems to continue to prevail.
As Dewey claimed learning by doing was more effective, so schools have moved to this idea. Teachers have become guides and facilitators, meeting individual student needs through flexibility. Active learning is encouraged. In my own classroom, hands-on learning is critical. I believe students need to manipulate content to understand the world around them, allowing them to learn from real experiences, encourages interaction with nature, allows exploration of all 5 senses, engages multiple areas of the brain and helps build fine motor skills. Children develop skills faster when having fun. I offer project-based learning for all levels as a demonstration of mastery, allowing creativity and problem-solving. Higher-level learners take content to a deeper level. Projects are often collaborative, giving students voice and choice to customize aspects according to their interests. My approach toward teaching and education, in general, is progressivist.
Currently, in teacher training programs, teachers are encouraged to use active engagement strategies in order to keep students on task. Students build and label models, perform experiments, and manipulate content to see how the world works. Progressivism is still the moving force in education. Students are taught how to think rather than what to think. Problem solving and critical thinking are taught through active learning. It also encourages social interaction, individualized learning, and democratic values. “During the early 20th century, the seeds were sown for educational reforms which honored the interests and concerns of learners, promoted democratic decision making, and used the community outside the classroom as a laboratory for meaningful learning” (Knapp, 1994). More meaningful learning takes place through field trips in today’s schools, entitled experiential learning. Students are immersed in planets and stars through the planetarium, animal scat and paw prints through Project Wild, Musicals, and plays. There are endless field trips for students to explore. As progressive education continues to move forward, some field trips are done in the classroom, but give the illusion that the student is actually there. New technology, Virtual and Augmented Reality, provides experiences never before even heard of. Students can be in the habitat of animals, study a shark in the ocean, visit France in a day, interact with cell organelles, and so many more immersive experiences. There are also Merge Cubes that allow students to hold teaching aids right in the palm of their hands. Through an App called Object Viewer/Explorer, using their own cell phones, a 3D image “pops” out of the phone and students can also create their own models through this. Progressive learning was just getting started in the 1920’s and a bit before. It has taken us on a long journey to independent, experiential learning we see today in so many classrooms. Adults enjoy the use of these technologies as well and many more, having access to funding through grants and scholarships, attend 2 and 4 year institutions. Through Progressivism came change and organized structure, becoming what education is today. Students are required to take a certain amount of classes and specific subjects to graduate high school, and college degrees are outlined for individual pathways, requiring more majors courses for focused instruction. I believe in the very near future that education will continue to progress using ever evolving technology. Adult learners do not share the same learning style as children. Many corporate programs and colleges are tailored to meet the needs of adult learners. They tend to take advantage of the fact that adult learners want to better themselves, are invested in their learning and have a willingness to connect to personal experiences. Beyond this, there are church groups, bible studies, dance classes, crafting classes…and the list goes on. Adult education is wide open for those who choose to improve themselves.
Table 1.
Summary of the History of Adult/Community Education
Areas Summary |
Social background The Roaring 20s, a time of prosperity and moral questioning, WW1 just ended and troops had many children. Immigrants came flooding in and the Progressivist movement in Education caused restructuring of curricula and a new definition of the term “adult education”. |
Highlights: Education for adults was seen as a way to better life and offer self satisfaction. John Dewey felt education could take place outside of a classroom and that we learn by doing. Other companies began offering continuing education in the form of job training for their employees and science, music, and foreign language was placed into the curriculum. |
Influential factors: WW1 was over, John Dewey determined education should be something we do not just sit for. Education was believed to be more than remembering facts, that it is lifelong and should help improve oneself. Education should be organized and people exposed to a plethora of topics that interest them. |
Implications State Boards of Education were created, curricula began to be organized and prescribed classes of study determined, education is the way to improve American life and support happiness |
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