History of Adult Education: Circa 1970

                                          History of Adult Education: Circa 1970

Sherry Prince

Adult and Community Education, Ball State University

EDAC 631

Dr. Bo Chang

February 4, 2023

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Sherry Prince	Jennifer Stout & Melissa Miodragovic

 

 

Introduction

            The seventies were the period of time in which people tend to refer to as the “sex, drugs, and rock & roll” era. In a discussion by Vlasits (2022) regarding a book written by Bruce J. Schulman, Vlasits states that Schulman contended that personal liberation and a rebellion against authority became key themes in the 1970s. This is especially true as there was a shift in political power from the northeast and Midwest to the south and southwest, what is commonly referred to as the “sunbelt states” (Vlasits, 2022). Great politicians of this time, such as Richard Nixon, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Raegan, hailed from the sunbelt states. The shift in the political power, along with the liberation of people came after Americans experience significant trauma during the Vietnam War and then Watergate. This caused much distrust and skepticism of the government (Vlasits, 2022).

            Economically, things weren’t well in the 1970’s. Jimmy Carter was quoted as saying “US suffering is a crisis of confidence” (Singh, 2022). During the 1970’s, there was an oil shortage in the US due to the cost of oil increasing by 400% after Yom Kimpar War of 1973. This shortage caused a shortage on almost all other supplies, which in turn caused inflation, and an increase in unemployed Americans. Sadly, the US was seeing a recession unlike the one it had seen in many years. Suicide rates and alcoholism soared (Singh, 2022). Singh (2022) compares the 1970s recession to that of the one that the US began to see through the Covid Pandemic, and states that we could learn from the mistakes of those in the 70s.

Highlights

            In response to the skyrocketing unemployment due to the recession, the US government made some amendments to the Adult Education Act (AEA) to expand its purpose to include those who had not received a secondary education; however, the basis of the AED remained the same; to provide skills necessary to gain training needed to become more employable, productive, and responsive Citizens. Although the AEA now covers secondary education, the federal government required that the state plans give special emphasis to adult basic education programs (Rose, 1991). The AEA was further amended in 1974 to include, but not limited to, the following:

-          State plans had to make provisions for cooperation with labor force development and training programs, occupational education programs, and reading improvement programs.

-          State Plans need to include provisions relating to the needs of those with limited English by providing bilingual adult education programs.

Without including these new requirements into their plan for educational programs, States would not receive government funding to aid in their different educational programs (Rose, 1991). Again, in 1978, the AEA was revised. This time, shifting its purpose to add “enabling all adults to acquire basic skills necessary to function in society”. This change reflected a commitment to the ideal that adult basic education was not the end itself, but rather a means to full human development (Rose, 1991).

            The 1970s didn’t just bring amendments to the American Education Act, it also brought an entirely new Act; the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA). The principal purpose of CETA was to promote job training for economically disadvantaged, unemployed, and under employed persons. CETA further sought to provide employment opportunities for such persons and to ensure that training and other services lead to maximum employment opportunities and enhanced self-sufficiency by establishing a flexible and decentralized system of federal, state, and local programs (HR 17526, 1973). Goss (2017) further explains that CETA was first enacted in 1973 by congress, was reauthorized in 1978, and then eventually replaced by the Job Training Partnership Act of 1982, which remains in place today.

            Lastly, to highlight the 1970s contribution to the American Adult Education system, 1979 brought with it the US Department of Education. This Department was brought forth with the intend to strengthen federal commitment to equal education opportunity for all Americans. The young and the old, regardless of race, color, or creed (S.510, 96^th Congress). It seems, there were so many new changes and amendments to adult education or education in general that the US Government decided to dedicate an entire Department to assist with the issues of that time.

Influential Factors/People

            One of the most influential factors in adult education in the 1970s would have to be the results of the third International Conference on Adult Education that was convened by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (Unesco) and held in Tokyo 1972. Unlike in the past, this conference demonstrated that a common language based on a common body of knowledge and experience had emerged (Lowe, 1974). Adult education was no longer exclusively seen in terms of specific content, levels, or methods of education. It was seen to be emerging from its marginal position in relation to formal educational systems and was moving towards a central role in society’s overall provision for education (Lowe, 1974, Pg. 5).

            The Unesco conference held in 1972 found adult education to be weak in three key areas:

-          Governments seemed reluctant to treat the education of adults as an integral part of their educational systems.

-          The level of financial support was dismally low.

-          Those who most needed education did not participate in adult education programs.

As a result of these weaknesses, Delegates at the Tokyo conference recommended that Unesco take a couple of actions:

-          Organize, as frequently as possible, regional seminars open to various categories of participants and planning, administration, and financing of adult education.

-          Encourage small international meetings for the comparative study of adult education (Lowe, 1974, pg. 181).

Further, the Diector General of Unesco assigned Unesco four functions (Lowe, 1974, pg. 197):

A)    Serve as a worldwide clearing house for the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information pertaining to adult education.

B)    Encourage and help facilitate communication between specialists by organizing symposia or by encouraging experiments and research.

C)    Intensify the aid given to Member States, notably for the preparation of policies, plans, and programs and the training of skilled personnel.

D)    To provide a framework for international consultation at the regional and international levels.

Another notable influential group from the 1970s would be the International Advisory Committee for Out of School Education. This Committee brought forth the knowledge that there was an obvious gap between the statements giving high priority to adult education and the actual financial funding going into adult education. The committee stressed, in 1973, the importance of Unesco acting positively to fulfill the general agreement expressed and the assurances give n that all possible action would be taken to increase resources available to adult education (Lowe, 1974, pg. 197). This committee was not afraid to step forward and hold Unesco to their word and ensure that they are held accountable for the functions that they assigned to themselves.

It appears that the many amendments to educational acts along with the meeting of Unesco did have a positive impact on the 1970s adult educational field. Let’s start off by pointing out that the 70s were booming with adult students prior to the recession. According to the US Department of Education, 1970 marked the twenty fifth year in a row that enrollment in colleges and schools across the nation had increased. In the Federal education program, the number of enrollments had exceeded 535,000 and congress had approved a $40 million budget for its support (Linc, 2013, pg. 13). In 1979, President Carter asked for a $12.9 billion dollar education budge, a 24% increase over the year prior. Of this, $90,750,000 was to be for adult education. According to the Department of Education, 1979 saw adult education enrollment hit an all-time high at nearly 2 million people (Linc, 2013, pg. 15).

One of the most influential people in the field of Adult Education in the 1970’s, would be none other than David Mundel, PhD. In 1972, Mundel helped to pave the way for what we now know as the ‘Pell Grant’, as he collaborated with economist Alice Rivlin preparing a long-range plan for federal support for higher education (Baskin, 2019). The Pell Grant was initially named the Basic Educational Opportunity Grant but was later renamed to honor Senator Claiborne Pell as he backed the grant. The Pell Grant program has since provided financial assistance to more than 60 million Americans so that they can earn a degree. Mendel’s work in coming up with education funding did not stop there. In 1975 Mundel became one of the first initial employees of the Congressional Budget Office. There, he directed analysis of federal programs and budget alternative for education, community, economic development, and income assistance policies and programs. Today, Mundel is a private consultant in the adult education field, still making his mark (Baskin, 2019).

Andragogy is a term that is described as literally meaning the art and science of helping adults learn, whereby pedagogy is the term meaning the art and science of helping children learn. Which brings me to my last two influences on adult education in the 70s. In 1972, John Ingall provided the first handbook guide to using andragogy in helping adult educators become more systematic and consistent in their engaging learners in the learner process (Henschke, 2010, pg. 4). In the same year, Malcolm Knowles had declared that there was a growing interest of many industrial corporations in the andrological educational process, with managers functioning as teachers, for example. In 1970, Knowles published his guidebook for learners and teachers on the topic of self-directed learning. This was the first time that he had labeled pedagogical as “teacher directed” and andragogical learning as “self-directed”. Knowles also presented the nine competencies of self-directed learning. Paving the way for new thought on how to educate adult learners (Henschke, 2010, pg. 12).

Implications

            The 1970s saw two wars, Watergate, suffered a recession, and lived through many changes as a result. There were people rebelling against the government because they didn’t feel they could trust them, and there were people rebelling against their parents. Drugs and alcohol were rampant, and yet people were all about peace love and harmony. The people that lived through the 1970s are remarkably resilient. With all that occurred, they did not give up. They kept pushing forward. This can be seen in the growth of enrollment into educational programs. The people of this time were willing to do what was necessary to survive a recession, including furthering their education.

             Despite the mistrust, the US government stepped in to assist in making things better, by providing more funding to adult education programs, holding conferences and meetings to discuss what policies and procedures could be put into place, and how could the educational needs of the American people be met. These efforts worked. The amount funding poured into adult education programs increased and as a result, the number of adults enrolled in adult education programs nearly hit 2 million. All the while, recovering from a recession.

            From the 70s, we could take away the lesson that adult education is an important part of our economy and our society. In response to the recession, the US government began to pour more funding into adult education so that more Americans could get back to work, and not just into any job, but into one that they could be trained for, qualify for, and enjoy. One that would allow for growth and would financially support them and their family. Adult education can assist with pulling an entire county out of a recession, but not just the recession. If you recall, suicide rates and alcoholism were at an all-time high as well. Well, when people can return to work, be self-sufficient and self-reliant, there are inevitably less mental health crises, and less substance abuse issues well.  

Conclusion

            The 1970s is an era that tends to get passed over. It’s known as the “sex, drugs and rock & roll” time. Which, unless you’re looking, does appear to be the truth. However, the 1970s brought much change to the adult education field. The 1970s saw amendments to existing policies and procedures that specifically addressed adult education and its funding. The 70s further saw the adoption of the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act. Along with changes to US education in congress, the 70s also saw the rise of the Pell Grant, which is still an active part of education today.  Education in a general sense is an important part of being able to be a productive member of society. The US government’s response to the recession of the 1970s shows us that with education, our economy can bounce back.

                 

                   Table 1. Summary of the History of Adult Education: Circa 1970

Areas                                  Summary

Social background - The 1970s political and financial climate.

Highlights – Amendments to adult education in congress.

Influential factors/people – Unesca, David Mundel, Pell Grant, Malcom Knowles, John Ingall

Implications – The effects that adult education can have on a failing economy.

 

References

Baskin, K. (2019, June 3). Behind the scenes at the birth of the pell grant program. MIT Alumni Association. Retrieved February 2, 2023, from https://alum.mit.edu/slice/behind-scenes-birth-pell-grant-program

Goss, R. (2017, January 24). Comprehensive employment and training act. Comprehensive Employment and Training Act - Federalism in America. Retrieved February 2, 2023, from http://encyclopedia.federalism.org/index.php/Comprehensive_Employment_and_Training_Act

Henschke, J.A. (2010). Bringing the History and Philosophy of Andragogy into a more comprehensive Understanding Worldwide: A 2010 Update.

H.R.17526 - 93rd Congress (1973-1974): Comprehensive employment and ... Congress.GOV. (1973). Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/house-bill/17526?s=1&r=5

Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. Cambridge Adult Education.

Lincs | Adult Education and Literacy | U.S. Department of Education. (2013, November). Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Adult_Ed_History_Report.pdf

Lowe, J. (1974, November 30). The education of adults: A world perspective. ERIC. Retrieved February 2, 2023, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED117463

Rose, A. D. (1991). Ends or means: An overview of the history of the Adult Education Act. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Center on Education and Training for Employment, Ohio State University.

Singh, A. (2022). Then and now: The crisis of the 1970s and the upheaval of the 2020s. Berkley Economic Review. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://econreview.berkeley.edu/then-and-now-the-crisis-of-the-1970s-and-the-upheaval-of-the-2020s/

S.510 - Department of Education Organization Act 96th ... - congress. Congress.GOV. (1979). Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.congress.gov/bill/96th-congress/senate-bill/510.

Vlasits, S. (2022, October 27). The Seventies: The great shift in American culture, society, and politics             by Bruce J. Schulman (2001). Not Even Past. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from                                     https://notevenpast.org/seventies-great-shift-american-culture-society-and-politics-2001/.