A Decade of Turbulent Political Based Change & The Impacts on Adult Education in the 1960’s
Eleanor Broyles
Ball State University
EDAC 631 Adult and Community Education
Professor Dr. Bo Chang
02/04/2023
Name: Commented On:
Ellie Broyles Claudia Blankenship
Introduction & Social Background:
In the 1960’s there were shifts in political, economic, and social climates that greatly impacted the education of a generation of adults who were experiencing the consequences of the national tragedies and social changes. The era was marked by the civil rights movement, the Vietnam War and antiwar protests, countercultural movements, political assassination and the emerging “generation gap” (History.com Editors 1960s 2023).
In the early 1960’s there was an economic recession that had unemployment rates rivaling those of the 1930’s. This would become a huge driving factor in many American citizens lives to become educated to work to get a higher paying job amidst all the turbulence surrounding their lives socially. According to the 1960’s census 77% of men over the age of 14 were in the labor force. “Men who had completed their education and those who assumed the responsibilities of marriage had substantially higher labor force rates and tended to work at full-time jobs to a greater extent than those men still enrolled in school and unmarried” (US Census Bureau, 1960 census: Population, Supplementary Reports: Employment Status, Weeks Worked, and Year Last Worked 1962).
Highlights:
Throughout the 1960’s the United States federal government shifted its priorities and grew incredibly education oriented. New programs were created to assist with federal aid for education which angered the efforts of their conservative opponents and local community leaders who believed education to be a State and more local issue. Two of the biggest contributing factors leading to the collisions behind the education movement were that it was so closely related to the Civil Rights movement and the governments’ focus on only funding public schools (The 1960s Education :Overview, 2021).
The 1960’s were also a turbulent time in American history due to the backlash on the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War. The draft was positively affecting college enrollment levels in surprising ways and allowing those who might not have considered continuing their education in a traditional setting, another route to higher education through the armed forces.
Influential Factors:
On November 8th of 1960, Democratic presidential candidate John F. Kennedy and vice president candidate Lyndon B. Johnson took the lead over Republican candidate Richard Nixon, by a mere 100,000 votes. JFK’s win paved the way for many of the shifts in adult education as he urged Americans to “ask not what your country can do for you- ask what you can do for your country” (President John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address (1961) 2022). During his short term in presidency, JFK established the Peace Corps, instilled federal protection for the Freedom Riders, increased minimum wages, launched the lunar landing Moon Program, and started taking action towards increasing federal support for schools and adult education, reducing unemployment, and expanding government programs that assist the poor and elderly (President John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address (1961) 2022).
When first founded on March 1, 1961 The Peace Corps started as volunteer-based service opportunity that “promotes world peace and friendship… which shall make available to interested countries and areas of men and women of the Unites States qualified for service abroad and willing to serve… to help the peoples of such countries and area in meeting their needs for trained manpower,… meeting the basic needs of those living in the poorest areas of such countries, and to help promote a better understanding of the American people on the part of the peoples served and a better understanding of other peoples on the part of the American people” (US Government General Counsel, MS 101: The Peace Corps Act 04/15/98 (v.2)). Volunteers would undergo rigorous trainings and then work on service based, adult and community education opportunities in foreign countries.
Mid 1963, Civil Rights leaders A. Phil Randolph, Bayard Rusin, and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. lead the March on Washington where more than 200,000 people of all races congregated in peaceful protest for the main purpose of civil rights legislation and establishing job equality for everyone (History.com Editors, Civil Rights Movement 2023).
After the nation was rocked by JFK’s assassination in November of 1963, President Lyndon B Johnson was sworn in and continued to make strides in the fight towards racial equality and continued efforts to educate the nation. In January ’64 during his inaugural address, LBJ declared the War on Poverty and outlined his aggressive agenda to reduce unemployment while increasing support for education and job training. Later that same year, he signed the Jobs Bill which allocated funds for adult education, job training, and provided loans to small businesses. Later in his presidency, LBJ signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which abolished literacy tests and other testing used to discourage African-Americans from voting. The same year he also signed the Higher Education Act which created the first federally funded college scholarships which allowed for more accessibility to a college education for all Americans (History.com Editors, Civil Rights Movement 2023) .
Throughout the 1960’s participation in higher education continued to increase and the idea of adult education became more common as “people of all ages were moving in and out of post-secondary programs, changing careers, finishing interrupted degrees, learning new skills, and exploring dormant interests” (Ravitch, 1978). In just the traditional higher educational setting, “almost one third of college students were attending part time and 36% were over 25 years old” (Ravitch, 1978).
In the late 60’s the civil rights movement lost two of its most prominent leaders who were both publicly assassinated- Malcom X in in February of 1965 and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr in April of 1968 (History.com Editors, Civil Rights Movement 2023). Toward the latter years of the decade, Republican Nixon took over the presidency and in the following July, American Neil Armstrong took the first steps on the moon, thus officially concluding the Space Race in 1969 (History.com Editors, 1969 Moon Landing 2022).
Aside from worrying about political assassinations, Civil Rights Movement protests, and fear of failing to Russia in the Space Race, mid-decade America’s young and able bodied men were required to enlist in the draft and were called to service for the US Military which was actively fighting in the Vietnam War, a war not backed by most of the population (The 1960s Education :Overview, 2021). To avoid the draft toward Vietnam War, many young men enrolled in college and viewed college deferment as an effective means of draft avoidance (Card & Lemiuex, Going to College to Avoid the Draft: The Unintended Legacy of the Vietnam War 2001). However, as the war raged on in Vietnam, it was fought more and more by the lower-class citizens who wouldn’t be able to afford a college education. Because military personnel were increasingly under-educated, “the military committed millions of dollars to fund education programs for its manpower” ( The 1960s Education :Overview, 2021).
Due to the war not being supported by many Americans and along the with current struggle for civil rights, many student demonstrations across the nation sprung to life, launching the Free Speech movement. These protests also included causes related to rules and regulations of college campuses. Female students gained more independence and freedoms, and “the formality of college classrooms gave way to the informality of “rap sessions” and open discussions among students and teachers” (The 1960s Education :Overview, 2021).
Implications:
Many political issues that were prevalent in the 1960’s are still being discussed today. Issues like the Civil Rights Movement are still currently propelling groups across the nation to fight for equality of all races. These now groups heavily rely on the same Radical adult education philosophy that leaders of the Civil Rights Movement built their movement upon in the 1960’s.
The Peace Corps are still incredibly active globally with an intense pre-service training process that includes technical training; language training; intercultural competence, diversity, equity, and inclusion training; health and wellness training; and safety and security training (Peace Corps Peace Corps- About). Once actually serving their two years in whatever community assigned, Peace Corp volunteers are working with members of the communities to bring resources and adult and community education on topics including agriculture, community economic development, education, environment, health, and youth in development (Peace Corps Peace Corps- What Volunteers Do). The Peace Corp use a Volunteer Competency Model that prepares and supports Volunteers to be effective in service as development professionals and ambassadors of world peace and friendship (Peace Corps Peace Corps- Training and Ongoing Learning).
Today, government still plays an instrumental role in adult education by overseeing student financial aid, enforcing civil rights laws in education settings, and developing policies that impact higher education in various ways. The implementation of the Higher Education Act was just a starting point in creating more affordable and accessible education for Americans. The students originally fighting for these rights paved the way for future students to have the rights they deserve.
References
Card, D., & Lemieux, T. (2007, July 2). Going to College to Avoid the Draft: The Unintended Legacy of the Vietnam War. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://davidcard.berkeley.edu/papers///vietnam-war-college.pdf
History.com Editors. (2022, July 19). 1969 Moon Landing. HISTORY. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.history.com/topics/space-exploration/moon-landing-1969
History.com Editors. (2023, January 12). Civil Rights Movement. HISTORY. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-movement
National Archives and Records Administration. (2022, February 8). President John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address (1961). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/president-john-f-kennedys-inaugural-address#:~:text=On%20January%2020%2C%201961%2C%20President,survival%20and%20success%20of%20liberty.%22
Peace Corps. (n.d.). Peace Corp- Training and ongoing learning. Peace Corps. Retrieved February 5, 2023, from https://www.peacecorps.gov/volunteer/training/#:~:text=The%20Peace%20Corps%20training%20program,competencies%20required%20of%20successful%20service.
Peace Corps. (n.d.). Peace Corps- About. Peace Corps. Retrieved February 5, 2023, from https://www.peacecorps.gov/about/
Peace Corps. (n.d.). Peace Corps- What Volunteers Do. Peace Corps. Retrieved February 5, 2023, from https://www.peacecorps.gov/volunteer/what-volunteers-do/
Ravitch, D. (1978, June 29). 60’s Education, 70’s Benefits. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1978/06/29/archives/60s-education-70s-benefits.html
US Census Bureau. (1962, December 21). 1960 census: Population, supplementary reports: Employment
status, Weeks worked, and year last worked. Census.gov. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1962/dec/population-pc-s1 35.html#:~:text=In%201960%2C%20there%20were%2061.3,employed%20in%20part%2Dtime%20jobs.
US Government General Counsel (D/GC), MS 101: The Peace Corps Act (4AD).
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